Part I contains advice on meal preparation, including many recipes. Part III advises on good habits and manners that should be cultivated, care of sick and aged occupants, raising children, and care of domestic animals.
Also covered in various places are family religious training, gardening, sewing, first aid, management of lamps and candles, laundry care, and various other topics. See our vintage and modern homemaking and home economics books. States clearly food values and proper methods of preparation; gives recipes, bills of fare and prices.
Vintage nutrition books, home cooking book pdf free download. Free vintage cookbooks pdf, old recipe books, old cookbooks online, free cookbooks pdf. And what a life he had — born into slavery in , a train porter with the Pullman Company, and eventually a chef.
Food and beverage book. Emerging at the height of the domestic science movement in the United States that sought consistency and uniformity in cooking practices, Farmer revolutionized the cook. It could be found in homes from all thirteen colonies including many of the Founding Fathers, and sales of the book continued well after the Revolution.
The Art of Cookery free online, home cooking book pdf free download. A practical and exhaustive manual of cookery and housekeeping, containing thousands of carefully proved recipes. Suggestions as to table service, formal and informal dinners, luncheons, teas, etc. Following the overthrow of colonialism throughout the continent, African nationalists expressed the aspirations of their people for an economic, political, and cultural renaissance by creating a movement of independent states called the Organization of African Unity.
Other relevant themes in the history of modern Ethiopia include modernization reforms in the educational, military, and po- litical realms and constitutional sectors. The sum of these concepts is emblem- atic of African transition into the modern era. We shall also analyze efforts directed toward the management of natural disasters by the creation of state bureaucracies and the development of non- state actors in Ethiopia as she deals with natural disasters, political irreden- tism, and economic development.
We will also deal with what some have described as an Ethiopian renaissance fueled by a political intelligentsia and popular culture shaped by traditional Ethiopian communities and their emer- gent Diasporic returnees. The literary renaissance of ancient Ethiopian scripts, such as the thousand-year-old Kebra Negast described by some as the lost Bible of Rastafarian wisdom, and the popular yearning for similar ancient manu- scripts locked away in European museums not only served as a testament to the common experience of colonialism but also as evidence of the refashioning of ancient tools for the modern nation-building process.
Many of these plateaus remain completely isolated from one another, some being joined only by the narrowest necks of land between great precipices.
Isolated and mountainous plateau massifs have proven to be almost insurmountable obstacles to political leaders who have sought to unify the country, to the invaders who desired to conquer it, and to those who have sporadically attempted to develop its economic resources.
Ethiopia is divided topographically into three major zones: daga the cool highlands where the annual average temperature is about 16 degrees centigrade , wayna daga the intermediate zone where most of the settled population lives , and qolla the hot valleys and plains, which are dependent on the desert conditions of the northeastern end of the Rift Valley for their hotness or coolness.
Ethiopia contains four major rivers systems. The Abbay is the most famous, deriving its source from Lake Tana.
The Rift also play host to Ethiopian major chain of lakes. A string of volcanic crater lakes can be found around the town of Dabra Zayt, formerly known as Be- shoftu, about 31 miles south of Addis Ababa. These are caused by monsoon winds blowing from the Indian Ocean into the low-pressure area of the Sahara desert and Arabia. The temperate conditions of the northern and central highlands have permit- ted abundant agricultural productivity. In the southern part, ensat, a root vegetable, is the staple crop.
Nowhere are the human and scenic contrasts more marked than along the edges of the vast Rift Valley escarpments. To the northeast, the Rift Valley broad- ens like a funnel to join the Red Sea, and part of this region, the Danakil De- pression, lies below sea level. The Danakil, or Afar Desert, separates Ethiopia from similar deserts and mountain terrain in Arabia, but, as we shall see, this did not preclude early cultural contacts with the Islamic world.
The Greek and Roman churches held that a divine and a human spirit had been brought together and fused in the body of Christ. Alternatively, many of the representatives of the Syrian and Egyptian churches believed in the singular, divine nature of Christ.
Their attitude came to be described as Monophysite, Jacobean, or Cop- tic. Ancient Ethiopia had followed the lead of Alexandrian Egyptian, and to this day remains Coptic.
The church emphasizes that all concerning Christ should be applied to his entire person as one Lord. Sacraments are holy ordinance through which the believer receives an invisible grace under the form of an outward sign.
In the performance of each sacrament the Divine Majesty himself is present. These mys- teries are regarded by the church as basic knowledge for all faithful, and every Christian must know this.
Fasting is strictly observed by all baptized members above the age of seven years. During lent, meat and meat products are pro- hibited. Three of these languages could be traced to a common ancestry linguists call proto-Afroasiatic. These are known as Cushitic and include the Agaw, the Beja, the Somali, the Afar, the Saho, the Hadiya, the Kambata, the Gedeo, and the Oromo, who now consti- tute the largest single nationality in Ethiopia.
A second category is the Omotic, who derive their name from their location on both sides of the Omo River and consist of the Dorze, Janjaro, Kafa, Walayta, the Dizi or Gimira, and Maji. The Nilo-Saharan language group is an indepen- dent strain found in the western fringes of the country and includes the Kunama in southwestern Eritrea, the Gumuz in Matakkal in western Gojjam, the Manjangir, the Anuak, and the Nuer.
In addition to linguistic evidence, archeological research suggests that the beginning of Ethiopian history lies in the prehistoric period. Some of the ear- liest evidence of human existence has been found in the vast array of stone tools and other functional implements and worked artifacts found throughout Ethiopia. In southwest Ethiopia, deco- rated ceramics and metal implements have been found in association with stone tools.
Other evidence of stone industries has been found in Djebel Djinn in the Horn. In , one of the earliest hominids was found in Hadar, in the Afar desert. Village farming communities developed in Ethiopia during the Neolithic period. In the fourth millennium b. There is also the possibility that after 3, b. There is abundant evidence that there were different durations of the Ethiopian Stone Age cultures.
The Agau are an ex- ample of an early population found today in the northern and central areas of the Abyssinian highland plateau. The Agau are noted for their pioneering discovery and development of new strains of plants and the domestication of the donkey and breeding of mules in the region.
Towards the end of the second millennium a population explosion occurred in Ethiopia, a result of the introduction of new techniques to overcome problems associated with the changing physical environment. As a result, the Cushitic population who resided in the southern fringes ex- panded and fanned out through Uganda, Kenya, Tanganyika, and beyond.
Subsequent migrations of the Bantu-speaking peoples also changed the popu- lation dynamics of Ethiopia and all other African societies to the south. Schol- ars have argued that the Cushitic people are the architects of the phallic stones found between southern Ethiopia and the coastal territories of northeast and eastern Africa.
These developments served as the basis for the emergence of states in the Ethiopian region. Oromo traditions also attest to population transloca- tions to southern parts of Ethiopia. The Azebu and Raia Oromo are thus be- lieved to have moved west from the coast of the Gulf of Aden to their present home.
Some Oromo groups, however, did develop into powerful monarchical states. The Oromo have remained notable for their cavalry, whose exploits are featured in the literature and oral fables of Ethiopian military and political tales. Essentially, the Galla are an assembly of various peoples. The absence of a central authority made these communities vulnerable to invading forces, ultimately leading to new population dispersal.
During this time, the state dissolved into its provincial components. These components in turn became involved in an endless and ultimately inconclusive struggle for supremacy. During this period, each province had its own king, and people felt loyalty to their own province, not to a country called Ethiopia.
In order to cement its alliance with certain Galla groups, the royal family resorted to political marriages. When it became obvious that the throne had become an instrument of Galla power, the position of the monarchy became untenable.
The last emperor with any semblance of power was Iyoas —69 , who was half Galla and entirely dependent on Galla support. Shoa, also spelled Shewa, is the southernmost province of Ethiopia and was the most heterogeneous of the ancient Ethiopian provinces, with several ethnic and religious groups striving to maintain a precarious political balance.
On the other hand, where Islam had deep roots, local Muslim chiefs were allowed to retain their position as long as they acknowledged the overall supremacy of the Christian rulers of Shoa. A new emperor, Tewodros, bore the responsibility of ending the in- ternecine struggle by restoring the authority of the Solomonic throne over the provincial dynasties while emerging as the unchallenged ruler of Ethiopia. He also re- alized that the strength of the nobles rested on their control of local army units who made up a national Ethiopian army.
These units comprised soldiers from different provinces who served under crown appointees and received salaries from the imperial treasury. Although Tewodros was a devout Christian, he often collided with powerful and profoundly conservative forces including the Ethiopian Church and clergy.
Hard-pressed for the funds he needed to maintain his large army, Tewodros curtailed the privilege of tax exemption enjoyed by the church. He also faced new challenges from the Galla, who resumed their raids to lay claim to the Ethiopian countryside. After a brief provincial contest, the Solomonic throne was claimed by the ruler of the Tigre province, who was crowned king of kings in under the title of Yohannes IV.
Yohannes as the king of kings reigned in both provinces of Shoa and Gojjam. During what some describe as the Ethiopian Dark Ages, ca. One of the highlights of this dynasty was the reign of Gebre Mesqel Lalibela, in whose reign the stone churches of Lalibela were carved. Lalibela remains im- portant in modern day Ethiopia for its religious and architectural contribu- tions.
The churches of Lalibela were excavated from blocks of rock left isolated by deep surrounding trenches. Constructed ca. The craftworks of Yeha, like that of Aksum, and other his- torical cultural features of ancient Ethiopia, such as the monolithic churches of Lalibela and the castles of Gondar, were all works of local craftsmen.
The re- mains of old cities and trade routes are scattered throughout the culturally synonymous Eritrea and northern Tigre. Following the rise of Islam in Arabia, Muslim power spread via the Red Sea coast and lowlands, forcing the Aksumites to retreat into mountainous strongholds.
As Islam spread northward into Egypt, the Ethiopian Christian empire became increasingly politically if not culturally and commercially iso- lated from the outside world. Ancient Greek and Egyptian lit- erature referred to the Ethiopian region as the land of Punt, a semimythical source of gold and riches somewhere in or near the eastern Horn of Africa. Recent works also reveal that there was also considerable trade with Arabia and the king- doms of the Upper Nile.
While in Ethiopia, she was revered as an Ethiopian queen named Makeda; in ancient and medieval Palestine and Arabia it was widely believed that the renowned Queen of Sheba was actually an ancient Arabian queen named Belkis, and that the Yemenite Kingdom of Himyar was her ancestral domain.
The two royalties had a relationship, and the product was a son, Menelik I. Menelik in turn traveled to Jerusalem twice—when he became of age and when Solomon as the king of Ethiopia anointed him. During the high point of the restored Solomonic dynasty, strict regulations were set over all the Christian territorial division of the kingship and its surrounding areas.
A series of successful military operations against Muslim provinces gave the dynasty power over the trade routes to the Red Sea. The political and economic achievements of this dynasty continued until the modern era. It should be noted that Haile Selassie, the last emperor of Ethiopia, traced his heritage back to Menelik I. The writer of the Periplus cited the considerable imports, which included sheets of soft copper, small axes, a little wine from Italy, gold and silver plates for the kings, military cloaks, Indian iron, steel, and cotton cloth.
The text described the totems of lions along with ceremonial umbrellas as having important political symbols. At its greatest extent Aksum was able to unify the principalities of north Tigre, and toward the end of the third century a. The empire also controlled shipping in the Red Sea, especially when the kingdom of Meroe to the west was destroyed in war.
Meroe, which had thrived before Aksum, did not fully recover. King Ezana of Aksum — a. The kings of Aksum produced coins in bronze, silver, and gold.
Precious crowns of former emperors were kept in the cathedral church of St. Mary of Zion. The emperor Yohannes presented most of these in the nineteenth century.
The church was destroyed by marauding Muslim warriors in the sixteenth century and was not rebuilt until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. There are also sites of tombs; one, which lies to the west of Aksum, is ascribed to the legendary monarch Menelik I. Aksum eventually fell into decline but the Christian church it had adopted survived the ruin.
Contact with the rest of the world in early times came through the trade routes. Because these routes had always been the lifelong routes of progress, without the free interchange of ideas nations stagnated and development stopped. The rise of Islam and the jihad, or holy wars, which followed also contributed to the decline of Aksum. It was during the Aksumite era that the inhabitants of the state began to refer to themselves as Abyssinians and their preeminent leader as the king of kings or emperor.
The society that emerged was commonly referred to as Abyssinian. From the time of its initial collapse in until , the Christian empire fell on hard times. By , the original state has been pushed to the south and west but was able to reconstitute itself, albeit in a weakened form. In this phase, dominated by Amhara kings, the Amhara-Christian cul- ture was diffused to all regions of the state where the conquered were forcibly Amharized and forced to abandon animist beliefs and embrace Coptic Chris- tianity.
The Ethiopian state and the northeast African region remains the only place on the African continent where Christianity emerged and sur- vived as a truly indigenous creed. European missionaries introduced the re- ligion to other parts of the continent. The Abyssinian society came into historical focus through the writings of its own clergy towards the end of the thirteenth century.
By this time, the integration of the Agaw had progressed enough to make possible the creation of an Agaw political dynasty. The dynasty was called Zagwe and was to rule the highland kingdom from about the middle of the eleventh century until Another dynasty, which was based in the Amhara province and claimed descent from Solomon, attempted to gain control of Aksum. In , the Zagwe were overthrown and the historical reign of the Solomonic dynasty began.
During these centuries, Ethiopian power for the most part proved ad- equate in repelling attacks on its own territory. From time to time, it brought large areas of the south and southeastern parts of the plateau under the sway of the Solomonic throne. The earliest known spec- imens of pictorial art in Ethiopia are the rock carvings of animal scenes found in some northern parts of the country, including Gobedra and Kohaito.
Ethiopian artists have produced a unique and prodigious body of church murals, manuscripts, miniatures, and panel paintings on wood. The small folding panels and diptychs in textile or leather bags were also worn suspended from the neck to ward off negative forces.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies, double-faced diptych pendants or two painted or carved panels hinged together with suspension cylinders emerged. Beginning with the introduction of Christianity in the fourth century, the evolution of Ethiopian Christian owed much to the church, which commis- sioned painters, many of whom were also ecclesiastics.
As early as the seventh century, wall paintings and hagiographic narratives often depicted the Virgin Mary and the saints as living objects with the power to see, talk, and take action like cure the sick or protect the weak.
Ethiopian art also reveals evidence of both the Eastern and Western worlds that include Byzantine, Greek, Coptic, Nubian, and Armenian cultures. Some of the large churches and monasteries also possess precious processional crowns, giant crosses, prayer sticks with intricately patterned handles, beautifully ornamented censers, processional umbrellas, sistra, and metal book covers. Ethiopian art is didactic, driven by a desire to convey to believers the drama and narratives of the gospels and the activities of the hallowed personages, and is handed down from one generation of painters to another by training, then augmented and expanded through local oral traditions.
These manuscripts are also often accompanied by beautifully colored paint- ings. Literature, art, and music and most facets of organized expression were dominated and shaped by the ecclesiastical, as the religion of the state largely determined the scope of artistic creation. Hymns were composed in honor of Christ, the virgin, saints, and angels. There were also many secular poems and songs and other forms of oral traditions, which have suffered from a relative lack of critical appreciation as a result of the hegemony of Christian written literature.
In this category are exhortations and panegyrics, laudatory songs and poems in honor of imperial rulers or as forms of social commentary, and other forms of affectations. Although Christianity was not the only source of Byzantine and Ethiopian art, it not only helped mold it but also prescribed its task and purpose. The popularity of musical genres such as the deggwa church music or chants and the janhoy or royal chants suggests that Ethiopian music, liturgical chant, and hymnography still require better appreciation.
There is the one-string masanko, and the Kabaro, or tambourine was one of the earliest and most widespread instruments. Ethiopian musical occasion is in- complete without the prayer-stick or Makwamiya, which plays a prominent part in beat, alongside the rhythmic hand clapping.
Such schools were also responsible for pre- paring individuals for the clergy and for other religious duties and positions.
In the major centers of Amhara and Tigre, the schools also provided religious education to the children of the nobility and to the sons of peasants associated with elite families. Islamic schools, however, provided education for some members of the Muslim population. A few missionary schools had been es- tablished in the late nineteenth century, and these were often accessible to interdenominational and multireligious communities. The introduction of Christianity into Ethiopia saw the religion emerging as the focus and expression of all literary creation.
The Fetha forms the basis of the customary law in some regions and has also inspired some of the civil and penal law that has been enacted in Ethiopia over the years. Although written Amharic literature became widely recognized in the sev- enteenth century, it only achieved full emancipation during the nineteenth century, when King Theodore gave the greatest impulse and encouragement to its production. By establishing a major printing press in Addis Ababa, Emperor Men- elik II had opened the door for the subsequent proliferation of printing estab- lishments in the major cities of Addis and Asmara.
The presses have turned out books, pamphlets, periodicals, and newspapers. Other notable contributions came from Ras Bitwod- ded Makonnen Endalkatchew, a former prime minister.
Ato Mangestu Lemna also made notable contribution to Ethiopian poetry. Ethiopians have also critically engaged with the best of European literature and intellectual traditions.
Amharic newspapers and periodicals also include Aimero and Ber- hanenna Salam. The multistoried towering structures are pre-Christian, serving as gravestones and memorials. Working, moving, and erecting these beautifully sculptured richly decorated structures required immense technical skills.
The largest obelisk standing at Aksum is nearly 70 feet high, while the biggest of all measured about feet in height and thus was once the largest upright monolith in the world. An Aksum obelisk of 24 meters was taken to Rome in and erected at the Piazzadi Porta capena.
The fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, in his effort to create a new Roman Empire, had removed the tallest of the famous historic Axum obelisks and placed it in front of what became the Ministry of Italian African Territories. Citizens, scholars, and friends of Ethiopia have launched modern-day lobby groups to clamor for the return of this heritage and iconography of the origins of Ethiopian civilization.
The obelisk was in Italy for more than 70 years until it was re- turned in The elaborate architecture of the Aksum monoliths and churches was ex- clusive to the ecclesiastical and royal prestige buildings. The average com- munity members in smaller settings such as the villages live in modest huts— the round tukul or agdo with cone-shaped roofs.
Relatively prosperous folks live in tukuls—more elaborate cylindrical wooden structures that are often strengthened by stones. Village chiefs and political elites have been known to favor elaborate houses with upper stories. The national dress of Ethiopia is the toga-like white shamma, a rectangular shawl of usually more than three feet in width, hand-woven and made of cotton.
Both men and women wear the shamma, although the manner in which it is draped by women differs from that of men. Women on the other hand wear shirt-like dresses with very full skirts of ankle length. Both dresses are often made of beautifully colored materials.
Underneath the shammas, men of distinction wear a silk tunic, or kamis, styl- ized with embroidery. Both men and women may wrap a cloak, or barnos, over their shoulders, especially in cool breezy atmospheres. The Ethiopian national dish is injera, a local bread, and wat ot zegeni, which is a kind of curried stew made of beef, mutton, or chicken to which some hard-boiled eggs have been added and which has been seasoned with red pepper or berbere and other spices.
This is on occasion served with the tedj or mies, a honey-mead fermented drink, or the tall, a popular Ethiopian beer. Ethiopia 19 Names or naming ceremonies are very important in Ethiopian traditions.
Children in the Tigrinya-speaking areas generally received a baptismal name. They also receive in addition a secular and a baptismal name. If a child has died or some other disaster has befallen the family, the newborn baby will be called Kassa, meaning compensation. Common secular names for men include Hagos—joy, Desta—pleasure, Mebrahtu—light, and Tesfaye—my hope. Typical Christian names are compounds with Gebre—servant of, Walda—son of, Amete—maid of, Walatta—daughter of, Tefa—hope of, Teklam—plant of, Haile—power of, and Habte—gift of.
NOTE 1. Islam continued to pose a great threat from the southeast in the form of a string of Muslim principalities that had emerged from the ninth century onwards. Around the same time, an international quest commenced for a legendary Christian king of super- lative wealth and power believed to rule somewhere beyond the Muslim cres- cent, which shut Europe off from Asia.
This intervention was to lead several European observers to play a part in the history of Ethiopia during this period, through diplomatic and religious correspondence as well as the exchange of emissaries between Ethiopia and Europe. The papacy tried to establish contact through Ethiopian monks in Jerusalem. A Spanish king wrote to Emperor Zara Yakob —68 , described as a fanatical Christian who not only encouraged the writing of books, the building of churches, and the instruction of the public through teaching but also helped established religious nationalism and Ethiopian identity.
He was also noted for reorganizing the government, suppressing a provincial rebellion, and forming an army of spies used to seek out those who were opposed to his convictions. The chiefs and kings in the south and east were obliged to acknowledge him with tribute. Their ambassador, Peros da Covilha, reached Shewa in However, the desire to foster combined operations against Islam was to give way to misconceptions in Lisbon and Rome that the Ethiopian Church was anxious to accept papal jurisdiction.
This led to a disastrous phase in Ethio-European relations, a legacy of which was the lack of trust between Ethiopians and foreigners for a long period. This suspicion was borne out in its most vivid form at the time of the nineteenth century European scramble for Africa by a series of Italian invasions and a short period of British military administration, which immediately followed the collapse of the Italian occupation.
In the Turks captured the Eritrean seaport of Massawa, penetrating the frontiers of the Tigre highlands. The Turks also provided groups such as the Afar and Somali peoples with arms, thus en- abling their ability to pressure Abyssinia from the east.
The Ethiopians sought military assistance from Por- tugal to repel the Islamic invaders, but the latter group subsequently sought to impose Catholicism on the country. Led by Christopher da Gama son of Vasco da Gama, discoverer of the route around South Africa to India , a Por- tuguese force of soldiers arrived in and successfully repelled Ahmad Gran. Jesuits missionaries, who had hoped to make religious capital out of the atmosphere of Aksumite-Portuguese friendship, entered Ethiopia and were well received by its grateful rulers, but subsequently became embroiled in social and political struggles in the period between and Emperor Za Dengel Asnaf Sagad II — and Susenyos — were secretly converted, but under the rule of Emperor Fasiladas — , the Jesuits fell out of favor and were expelled.
His replacement, Alfonso Mendez, who arrived in January , proved to be less tolerant of Ethiopian traditional practices, and he soon proclaimed the primacy of Rome while condemning local practices. Between the seventeenth century and the middle of the nineteenth century, regional controversies reigned over the Catholic infringement on Ethiopian Orthodox traditions and most importantly over the diverse doctrines regard- ing the nature of Christ.
Two of the traditions introduced by the mission of the Portuguese Jesuits included the Qebat anointing , which states that Jesus became a perfect man and a perfect God by the anointing of the Holy Spirit in the Jordan River and not upon the incarnation. The Tsegga son of grace on the other hand, expressed the view that Christ had undergone three births—eternal birth, of the Son from the Father; genetic birth, of the Son from the Virgin Mary; and birth from the Holy Spirit during baptism.
This contro- versial distinction continued until the reign of Emperor Tewodros II — , who tried to forge Ethiopian unity by enacting a decree banning the politics of religious doctrinal crisis. The Galla settled extensively all over the empire, including the homeland area of the Amhara, the dominant ethnic group in Solomonic times.
However, the period from into the s was marked by decline and eventual collapse. Fasiladas also began the processes of development that was to make Gondar the most important city in Ethiopia until the founding of Addis Ababa at the close of the nineteenth century. Historian Bahru Zewde has argued that the Industrial Rev- olution that transformed European society, starting from the end of the eighteenth century, ushered in a new pattern of relationship between Europe and Africa.
With the advent of nineteenth-century imperi- alism, these European interests developed a rationale for colonial behavior in the guise of social Darwinism. The decentralization of political power saw a decisive shift in power from the monarchy into feudal, regional compartments as local war- lords and traditional nobility competed for supremacy. Some scholars have described the role of the emperor in the mid-nineteenth century as that of a puppet.
Political power was divided among the nobles, led by the rulers of Begemder, of Gojjam, and of Simien men who sought to enlarge their terri- torial control. The level of civil strife also increased as the empire disintegrated into a series of pseudo-independent feudatories whose main allegiance was directed not to the monarchy, but rather to the Christian Church. Between and , Protestant and subsequently Catholic missionaries also established new links between Ethiopia and Europe.
By the s the principal institutions of the Ethiopian state had collapsed. These institutions owed their ultimate origins to a classical period associated with the Aksumite Empire in the early centuries of the Christian era. Kasa dedicated himself to crushing the kings of Tigre and Shoa. He took the title of Emperor Theodore, claiming, ac- cording to one of the religious documents that form the basis of Ethiopian myth and the custom Fikkere Iyesus the interpretation of Jesus , that he was a righteous, just, and popular king who would come to the throne after a period of divine punishment had been heaped upon the Abyssinians for their evil deeds.
It was prophesied that this king would be called Theodore and that he would rule for 40 years, restoring Abyssinia to its former unity and greatness. This was the beginning of the modern Ethiopian Empire.
Theodore or Te- wodros began a process of imperial reconstruction, the primary stage of which was not concluded until He also developed a close relationship with the Christian Church with the ultimate goal of securing control of the monarch, the civil society, and national wealth.
The emperor instituted two measures geared towards strengthening his im- perial sovereignty. First, he fragmented traditional administrative divisions and thus deprived many local princes and kings of their bases of power. He often employed Europeans and Turks with military expertise to train his men. He also initiated road construction and was recognized as a shrewd actor in matters of foreign policy.
Eager to introduce European technology into his country, he initiated a series of diplomatic contacts with Europe, especially with Queen Victoria of England. He exploited the history of the Ethiopian Church to appeal to Eu- ropean Christendom to send Protestant missionaries.
Although his relation- ship with the Protestants was more amicable, his intensions were not entirely altruistic. He employed them in the manufacturing of armaments and re- stricted their proselytizing activities among the non-Christian Falashas. Some of the missionaries did not endear themselves to the king based on their cul- tural biases or insensitivity. Unable to effectuate his modernizing impulses, with his political fortunes and popularity waning, Tewodros expressed his frustration by holding British missionaries and diplomats captive in Magdala.
The British had also secured valuable support from Kasa Mercha of Tigre the future Emperor Yohannes IV , who supplied the expedition with provisions and transportation.
After securing victory in the battlefront, the British loaded mules and 15 elephants with gold crowns, swords, altar slabs, and more than manuscripts before burning Magdala to the ground. Tewodros, however, denied the British the satisfaction of capturing him by committing suicide. Some scholars argue that Tewodros did not lose to General Napier.
The emperor began the pro- duction of weapons in the country to complement the concentration of armory in Tigre. In synopsis, Tewodros was unsuccessful in securing diplomatic recognition from the European powers that were al- ready beginning to expand their interest in the northeastern region also known as the Horn of Africa.
Ethiopian supplies of arms and ammunitions increased tremendously during the reign of Yohannes IV — He purchased arms from both public and private European agents. Reports held that the emperor received a gift from European powers of 6 mortars, 6 howitzers with rounds of ammunitions to match, muskets and bayonets, 40, rounds of small arms ammunition, and 28 barrels of gunpowder as a reward for his signatory to treaties of neutrality and friendship.
Although China has a good foundation in the field of AI, even as core technologies such as speech recognition, visual recognition, and Chinese-language information processing have achieved breakthroughs and possess huge market environments for applications, the overall level of development still lags behind that of developed countries.
The Tsinghua University China AI report did a remarkable study of the global AI talent distribution, concluding that by the end of , the international AI talent pool comprised , individuals, with the United States having 28, such individuals and China in second place with 18, Among other elements, the plan:.
In a separate initiative, the MOE also plans to launch a new five-year AI talent training program to train more AI instructors and 5, more top students at top Chinese universities. The determination and common adoption of international technical standards is a key enabler of technology interoperability and market growth. Common adoption of Wi-Fi standard, for example, is what allowed such a wide diversity of modems, routers, mobile phones, and computers to all effectively connect to each other over Wi-Fi networks.
Companies that create intellectual property related to such standards often reap significant rewards, especially when their patents, such as the design of a specific semiconductor chip, are declared essential to effective operation of any device using the standard.
Historically, Chinese companies and government organizations produced very few SEPs, but China has made rapid progress on this front. Developers of AI systems rarely start from scratch. More often, they leverage pre-written programs developed by others and shared into code libraries. This allows developers to focus on the unique specifics of their application usage requirements, rather than solving generic problems faced by all AI developers.
Some organizations have combined machine learning code libraries with other AI software development tools into mature machine learning software frameworks, many of which are open source. Notably, none of the most popular machine learning software frameworks have been developed in China. Companies that do prioritize framework development claim that it offers opportunities to attract top talent, influence technical standards, and guide the overall ecosystem toward increased usage of their products and services.
So far, the company appears to have had limited success in promoting adoption: No Chinese computer scientists I met with outside of SenseTime had even heard of Parrots, even though it was announced more than two years ago.
Even in the consumer drones market, where the leading Chinese company DJI enjoys 74 percent global market share, 35 percent of the bill of materials in each drone is actually U. China brings extraordinary scale, skills, and infrastructure to bear in electronics manufacturing, which accounts for its central role in the global electronics supply chain.
However, recent developments suggest that this centrality may be less irreplaceable than is often claimed. In the face of increasing Chinese wages and U. By contrast, U. Like the Soviet Union during the Cold War, China today is engaged in an extensive campaign to harvest technological and scientific information from the rest of the world, using both legal and illegal means.
When a state-owned Chinese company recently sought to steal U. Follow the rules of the market. Grasp well the division of labor between government and the market. The Soviet Union had a large community of brilliant scientists and technologists, but this community spent a disproportionate amount of its creative and intellectual potential on compensating for the shortcomings of the Soviet system.
On top of perverse institutional incentives divorced from economic reality, the Soviet economy was deliberately self-isolated from global trade. Despite sensational successes in the Space Race and some key military technologies, overall, the Soviet Union fell further and further behind each year that the Cold War dragged on. China, by contrast, has gone from a scientific backwater to a leading player in a long list of scientific fields and technology industries in just two decades.
In November , Dr. Due to the frankness and insightfulness of Dr. American companies such as Google, IBM, Microsoft, and Facebook have actively built innovation ecosystems, seized the innovative high ground, and already in the international AI industry hold the upper hand in AI chips, servers, operating systems, open source algorithms, cloud services, and autonomous driving, among others. The U.
In order to avoid repeating this disaster, China should learn its lesson about importing core electronic components, high-end general-purpose chips, and foundational software. Made in China notably outlines policies across various industries for China to reduce dependency on foreign technology, either by developing it indigenously or acquiring it from foreign sources, and thereafter capture global market share.
Tan Tieniu also argued that China can leverage its existing strength in AI applications to improve its position in other parts of the AI value chain, such as international standards. A study 60 of which countries capture what share of revenue from each sale of the iPhone found that the factories assembling the iPhone in China captured less than 2 percent of the value 61 of each iPhone sold and that there were no Chinese suppliers to the iPhone other than assembly laborers.
There are three major segments of the semiconductor value chain: design, manufacturing, and assembly. The Kirin is one of only two smartphone processors in the world to use 7 nanometer nm process technology, the other being the Apple-designed A12 Bionic. Even the most advanced Chinese semiconductor manufacturers are only in introducing 14nm technology, which international firms such as Intel and Samsung achieved in Historically, AI companies have been able to build competitive advantages based on possessing more and higher quality data to use for training purposes.
Data quality, diversity, and especially quantity all remain key sources of competitive advantage for many AI applications, but there are two caveats to this. First, much of the training data for machine learning is application-specific.
Training machine learning algorithms on large data sets is very computationally intensive. Running simulations to generate synthetic data is, for many applications, even more computationally intensive. For the large and growing set of AI applications where massive data sets are needed or where synthetic data is viable, AI performance is often limited by computing power.
Chinese companies and government laboratories are strong in high performance computing and specifically on efficient high performance AI computing. At the moment, China does not have a major manufacturer or designer of advanced GPUs. These chips can offer dramatically superior performance over GPUs for AI applications even when manufactured using older processes and equipment. Google claimed in that its first generation TPU was 15—30 times faster and 30—80 times more power efficient for AI workloads than contemporary GPUs.
Chinese firms Baidu in partnership with Intel , 75 Alibaba via a new subsidiary, Pingtouge , 76 and Huawei via its HiSilicon subsidiary have all established semiconductor design divisions focused on developing AI accelerator chips. AI chips offer Chinese manufacturers a uniquely attractive opening for their older process technology.
As mentioned above, AI chips can offer potentially superior performance and cost than state-of-the-art GPUs even while using less advanced manufacturing processes.
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